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As the author points out, the United States is a pluralistic society, made up of many different groups. Discuss some of the things that are gained by living in such a society, as well as some of the problems that are created. Consider the degree to which the real culture of the United States falls short of the ideal culture. Provide concrete examples to support your essay. Evaluate what is gained and lost as technology advances in society. Discuss whether cultural leveling is a positive or negative process.
Over a period of two or three days, observe various gestures that people use to communicate. List the various gestures.
Are the various gestures confusing to people as they try to communicate with one another? Are there easily shared meanings of the various gestures? Further, think about yourself, your parent s , and your grandparent s. Do different generations view values and the priority of certain values differently?
Or are certain values universal across generations in the United States. Provide illustrations from your own family. As was noted in the text, various new technologies are emerging, and they have a significant impact on our culture and our lives.
Choose two new technologies that you currently use and explore the positive and negative effects these technologies have on society. For each technology, list three positive effects and three negative effects. Explain your answer. Observations of isolated and institutionalized children help to answer this question. These studies have concluded that language and intimate interaction are essential to the development of human characteristics.
Cooley and Mead demonstrated that the self is created through our interactions with others. Piaget identified four stages in the development of our ability to reason: 1 sensorimotor, 2 preoperational, 3 concrete operational, and 4 formal operational. Freud defined the personality in terms of the id, ego, and superego. Personality developed as the inborn desires id clashed with social constraints superego. Socialization into emotions is one way societies produce conformity; we learn not only how to express our emotions, but also what emotions to feel.
Intense resocialization takes place in total institutions. Most resocialization is voluntary, but some is involuntary. At each stage, the individual must adjust to a new set of social expectations. Life course patterns vary by social location, such as history, gender, race-ethnicity, and social class.
Discuss how studies of feral, isolated, and institutionalized children prove that social contact and interaction is essential for healthy human development. Talk about how socialization is critical not only to the development of the mind, but also to the development of emotions, affecting not only how people express their emotions, but also what particular emotions they may feel. Know what is meant by gender socialization and how the family, media, and other agents of socialization teach children, from the time of their birth, to act masculine or feminine on the basis of their gender.
Define the term resocialization and provide examples of situations that may necessitate resocialization. Discuss how different settings, including total institutions, may go about the task of resocializing individuals. Understand why socialization is a lifelong process, and summarize the needs, expectations, and responsibilities that typically accompany different stages of life. Discuss why human beings are not prisoners of socialization while providing examples of how people can—and do—exercise a considerable degree of freedom over which agents of socialization to follow and which cultural messages to accept—or not accept—from those agents of socialization.
What Is Human Nature? Examples like Isabelle show how humans would be if they were isolated from society at an early age. Isabelle, raised in isolation, appeared severely retarded. Without companionship, she had been unable to develop into an intelligent human. Subsequent interaction with others at an early age allowed her to reach normal intellectual levels.
Studies of institutionalized children show that characteristics we think of as human traits intelligence, cooperative behavior, and friendliness result from early close relations with other humans.
When infants in orphanages received little adult interaction, they appeared mentally retarded. When some were placed in the care of adult women—even though the women were mentally retarded—one-on-one relationships developed, and the infants gained intelligence. As adults, these individuals had, on the average, achieved a high school education, were married, and were self-supporting.
A control group of infants remained in the orphanage. A follow-up investigation found that they actually lost intelligence. As adults, this group averaged less than a third grade education. A few had remained in the institution, while the others had low-level employment. Genie, who was locked in a small room from infancy until she was found at age 13, demonstrates the importance of early interaction.
Intensive training was required for her to learn to walk, speak simple sentences, and chew correctly. Yet even so, she remained severely retarded. Studies of monkeys raised in isolation have reached similar results.
The longer and more severe the isolation, the more difficult adjustment becomes. Babies do not naturally develop into human adults; although their bodies grow, human interaction is required for them to acquire the traits considered normal for human beings.
Socialization into the Self, Mind, and Emotions A. Charles Horton Cooley — concluded that human development is socially created—that our sense of self develops from interaction with others. He coined the term looking-glass self to describe this process. A favorable reflection in the social mirror leads to a positive self- concept, while a negative reflection leads to a negative self-concept. This development process is an ongoing, lifelong process.
George Herbert Mead — agreed with Cooley but added that play is critical to the development of a self. In play, we learn to take the role of others: to understand and anticipate how others feel and think. Mead concluded that children first take only the role of significant others parents or siblings, for example.
As the self develops, children internalize the expectations first of significant others and then eventually of the entire group. The norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people in general are the generalized other. According to Mead, the development of the self goes through stages. Imitation: Children initially can only mimic the gestures and words of others. Play: Beginning at age 3, children play the roles of specific people, such as a firefighter or the Lone Ranger.
Games: In the first years of school, children become involved in organized team games and must learn the role of each member of the team. Mead distinguished between the I and the me in development of the self. Mead argued that we are not passive participants in this process but actively evaluate the reactions of others and organize them into a unified whole.
Mead concluded that not only the self but also the human mind is a social product. The symbols that we use in thinking originate in the language of our society.
Jean Piaget — noted that when young children take intelligence tests, they consistently give wrong answers, while older children are able to give the expected answer. To understand why, he studied the states a child goes through in learning to reason. The sensorimotor stage ages 0—2 : Understanding is limited to direct contact with the environment e. The preoperational stage ages 2—7 : Children develop the ability to use symbols, which allows them to experience things without direct contact.
The concrete operational stage ages 7—12 : Reasoning abilities become much more developed. Children now can understand numbers, causation, and speed but have difficulty with abstract concepts such as truth.
Child development specialists suggest that the stages are less distinct and that children develop reasoning skills more gradually than Piaget outlined. The content of what children learn varies from one culture to the next.
Because childhood activities are different, the development of thinking processes will be different. Sigmund Freud — believed that personality consists of three elements. The id inherited drives for self-gratification demands fulfillment of basic needs such as attention, safety, food, and sex. The ego balances between the needs of the id and the demands or society. The superego the social conscience we have internalized from social groups gives us feelings of guilt or shame when we break rules and feelings of pride and self-satisfaction when we follow them.
Most socialization is meant to turn us into conforming members of society. We do some things and not others a result of socialization. Our social mirror—the result of being socialized into self and emotions—sets up effective controls over our behavior.
Socialization into Gender A. Society also channels our behavior through gender socialization. By expecting different behaviors from people because they are male or female, society nudges boys and girls in separate directions from an early age, and this foundation carries over into adulthood. Parents begin the process. Studies have concluded that in U. In general, parents teach their children gender roles in subtle ways—with the toys they buy, the rules they set, and the expectations they have.
Peer groups also play an important role in gender socialization. On TV, male characters outnumber females two to one and are more likely to be portrayed in higher-status positions. There are some notable exceptions to the stereotypes, which are a sign that things are changing. Agents of Socialization A. People and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behavior are called agents of socialization. Our socialization experiences in the family are influenced by social class.
Research by Melvin Kohn suggests social class differences in child rearing. Kohn found that over and above social class, the type of job held by the parent is a factor.
The more closely supervised the job is, the more likely the parent is to insist on outward conformity. Some neighborhoods are better for children than others. Research shows that children from poor neighborhoods are more likely to get into trouble with the law, to get pregnant, to drop out of school, and to end up disadvantaged.
Religion plays a major role in the socialization of most Americans; 70 percent of Americans belong to a local congregation, and two in every five Americans attend a religious service weekly. Religion especially influences morality but also ideas about dress, speech, and manners that are appropriate. With more mothers working outside the home today, day care has become a significant agent of socialization.
Children from poor households or dysfunctional families appear to benefit from day care. Researchers studied day care centers and found that children in higher-quality day care interact better with children and have fewer behavioral problems. One national study involved following 1, children from infancy into preschool, with researchers observing them at home and at day care. The results indicated that the more hours per week children spend in day care, the weaker are the bonds between mothers and children and the more negative are their interactions.
In school, children are placed outside the direct control of the family and learn to be part of a large group of people of similar age—a peer group. Peer groups, linked by common interests, are a powerful socializing force. Research by Patricia and Peter Adler demonstrates how peer groups influence behavior.
For boys, norms that make them popular are athletic ability, coolness, and toughness. For girls, the norms are family background, physical appearance, and interest in more mature concerns such as the ability to attract boys.
It is almost impossible to go against peer groups; children who do, become labeled as outsiders, nonmembers, or outcasts. Sports are another powerful socializing agent, teaching skills as well as values. The workplace is a significant agent of socialization in later life. The part-time jobs we take during high school and college provide opportunities for anticipatory socialization—learning to play an occupational role before actually entering it.
There is a tendency for the work we do to become part of our self-image, and we often identify ourselves in terns of our occupation.
Resocialization A. Resocialization refers to the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors to match new situations in life. Resocialization, in its most common form, occurs each time we learn something that is contrary to our previous experiences, such as going to work in a new job.
Most resocialization is mild, but it can be intense. Erving Goffman coined the term total institution to refer to a place—such as boot camps, prisons, concentration camps, convents, some religious cults, and some boarding schools—where people are cut off from the rest of society and are under almost total control of agents of the institution. A person entering the institution is greeted with a degradation ceremony through which current identity is stripped away and replaced e.
Total institutions are quite effective because they isolate people from outside influences and information; supervise their activities; suppress previous roles, statuses, and norms and replace them with new rules and values; and control rewards and punishments. Socialization Through the Life Course A. As we pass through the different stages, our behaviors and attitudes change in ways that reflect the social expectations of that stage.
A general outline of the different stages in the life course would include: 1. Childhood birth to age 12 : In earlier times, children were considered miniature adults who served an apprenticeship in which they learned and performed tasks.
To keep them in line, they were beaten and subjected to psychological torture. Adolescence ages 13—17 : Economic changes resulting from the Industrial Revolution brought about material surpluses that allowed millions of teenagers to remain outside the labor force, while at the same time the demand for education increased. Biologically equipped for both work and marriage but denied both, adolescents suffer inner turmoil and develop their own standards of clothing, hairstyles, language, music, and other claims to separate identities.
Young adulthood ages 18—29 : Adult responsibilities are postponed through extended education. At some point during this period, young adults gradually ease into adult responsibilities: finishing school, getting a job, getting married. For U. Later adulthood results in a different view of life: trying to evaluate the past and come to terms with what lies ahead.
Individuals may feel they are not likely to get much farther in life, while health and mortality become concerns. However, for most people, it is the most comfortable period in their entire lives. Older years age 65 and beyond : People now live longer, and there has been an improvement in general health. At the same time, people in this stage become more concerned with death—that their time is drawing to a close.
Are We Prisoners of Socialization? Sociologists do not think of people as robots who are simply the result of their exposure to socializing agents. Although socialization is powerful and profoundly affects us all, we have a self, and the self is dynamic. Each of us uses his or her own mind to reason and make choices. In this way, each of us is actively involved in the social construction of the self. Our experiences have an impact on us, but we are not doomed to keep our orientations if we do not like them.
Patricia and Peter Adler: These sociologists have documented how peer groups socialize children into gender-appropriate behavior. Cooley: Cooley studied the development of the self, coining the term the looking- glass self. He also said that all humans show the same facial expressions for these emotions. Skeels and H. Dye: These psychologists studied the impact that close social interaction had on the social and intellectual development of institutionalized children.
From the cases of institutionalized children, it is possible to conclude that: 56—58 a. The looking-glass self includes: 59—60 a. The development of self is an ongoing, lifelong process.
We move beyond the looking-glass self as we mature. The process of the looking-glass self applies to old age.
The self is always in process. Taking the role of the other means to: 60 a. According to George Herbert Mead, which of the following is not one of the three stages in learning to take the role of the generalized other? Imitation b. Transition c. Play d. Game 6. The stage of learning to take the role of the other that generally takes place from three to six years of age is: 60—61 a. The imitation stage. Paul Ekman found that everyone in the world experiences six basic: 63 a.
Language b. Socialization c. Culture d. Religion Usually, the significant others who first teach us our part in the gender division of the world are: 65 a.
People and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behavior are: 68 a. When we examine influences of religion, how many Americans belong to a local congregation?
According to researchers, which children seem to benefit most from day care? Poor children c. Children from dysfunctional families d. According to a study by Adler and Adler, the norms that made boys popular in elementary school included all except: 69 a. Total b. Childhood c. Workplace d. Anticipatory Concern about what answers to give during a job interview reflects: 69 a. Total institutions: 71 a.
The stages that we all go through in life are called the: 71 a. The sandwich generation experience is most likely to occur in the United States during: 74 a. Given recent social changes that have taken place within the United States, which of the following groups are particularly challenged by the early middle years stage of the life course?
Generation X b. Women c. Baby boomers d. Men For many aging people, the most comfortable period in their lives is: 75 a. Increasingly during the last stage of life, people begin to contemplate: 75 a. What is it that prevents us from being prisoners of socialization? Our culture b. Our education c. Our self d. Our families Each of us is actively involved in the construction of the: 75 a. Studies of monkeys suggest that animals do not react in similar ways to humans when isolated.
Socialization is the process by which we learn the ways of society, or all particular groups. George H. Mead introduced the concept of the generalized other to sociology.
According to Cooley, the development of the self is essentially completed by adolescence. Mead thought that play is crucial to the development of the self. According to Mead, from the age of about 3 to 6, children can only mimic others. The I is the self as subject. Piaget used the term operational to mean the ability to reason.
The technique of psychoanalysis was founded by Piaget and Freud. Freud assumed that to be male is normal. Our social mirror sets up effective controls over our behavior. The Adler study found that athletic ability helped to make boys popular. Anticipatory socialization involves learning to play a role before actually taking that role on. A person who was married but is now divorced and single will experience the process of resocialization.
Total institutions rarely encourage degradation ceremonies. Industrialization brought with it a delay in the onset of old age. Charles H. The stage of the life course that poses a special challenge for U. Cooley 59 a. Mead 60 b. Piaget 61 c. Freud 62 d. Kohn 68 e. Looking-glass self 59 a. Significant other 60 b. Gender socialization 65 c. Resocialization 71 d. Explain what is necessary in order for us to develop into full human beings. Why do sociologists argue that socialization is a process and not a product?
Having read about how the family, the media, and peers all influence our gender socialization, discuss why gender roles tend to remain unchanged from one generation to the next. As the text points out, the stages of the life course are influenced by the biological clock, but they also reflect broader social factors. Identify the stages of the life course, and indicate how social factors have contributed to the definition of each of these stages.
Watch one afternoon and one evening of television. Some people might say that you ought not to be encouraged to do this! Note the time of the day or evening, what day or night of the week it is, and the type of program soap opera, sit-com, etc. What are images of men and women on the programs?
Think about the agents of socialization that you have experienced in your life. Which one has been the most influential? Explain why. Which agent do you think was more important for your parents? Think about yourself, your family, and the different generations. Categorize yourself and your closest family members as to where you and your relatives are in the life course. How is socialization affecting all of you? How has it? How will it?
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